andragogy

andragogy

The notion of andragogy has been around for nearly two centuries. It became particularly popular in North America and Britain as a way of describing adult learning through the work of Malcolm Knowles. But what actually does it mean, and how useful a term is it when thinking about adult learning?

The term andragogy was originally formulated by a German teacher, Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v). He used it to describe elements of Plato's education theory. Andragogy (andr- meaning 'man') could be contrasted with pedagogy (paid- meaning 'child' and agogos meaning 'leading') (see Davenport 1993: 114). Kapp's use of andragogy had some currency but it was disputed, and fell into disuse. It reappeared in 1921 in a report by Rosenstock in which he argued that 'adult education required special teachers, methods and philosophy, and he used the term andragogy to refer collectively to these special requirements' (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v). Eduard Lindeman was the first writer in English to pick up on Rosenstock's use of the term. The he only used it on two occasions. picture of Malcolm KnowlesAs Stewart, his biographer, comments, 'the new term seems to have impressed itself upon no one, not even its originators'. That may have been the case in North America, but in France, Yugoslavia and Holland the term was being used extensively 'to refer to the discipline which studies the adult education process or the science of adult education' (Nottingham Andragogy Group 1983: v).

In the minds of many around the adult education field, andragogy and the name of Malcolm Knowles have become inextricably linked. For Knowles, andragogy is premised on at least four crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about child learners on which traditional pedagogy is premised. A fifth was added later.

1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being

2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.

3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles.

4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centredness.

5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12).

Each of these assertions and the claims of difference between andragogy and pedagogy are the subject of considerable debate. Useful critiques of the notion can be found in Davenport (1993) Jarvis (1977a) Tennant (1996) (see below). Here I want to make some general comments about Knowles' approach.
Some general issues with Knowles' approach

First, as Merriam and Caffarella (1991: 249) have pointed out, Knowles' conception of andragogy is an attempt to build a comprehensive theory (or model) of adult learning that is anchored in the characteristics of adult learners. Cross (1981: 248) also uses such perceived characteristics in a more limited attempt to offer a 'framework for thinking about what and how adults learn'. Such approaches may be contrasted with those that focus on:
* an adult's life situation (e.g. Knox 1986; Jarvis 1987a);
* changes in consciousness (e.g. Mezirow 1983; 1990 or Freire 1972) (Merriam and Caffarella 1991).

Second, Knowles makes extensive use of a model of relationships derived from humanistic clinical psychology - and, in particular, the qualities of good facilitation argued for by Carl Rogers. However, Knowles adds in other elements which owe a great deal to scientific curriculum making and behaviour modification (and are thus somewhat at odds with Rogers). These encourage the learner to identify needs, set objectives, enter learning contracts and so on. In other words, he uses ideas from psychologists working in two quite different and opposing therapeutic traditions (the humanist and behavioural traditions). This means that there is a rather dodgy deficit model lurking around this model.

Third, it is not clear whether this is a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory or model of teaching (Hartree 1984). We can see something of this in relation to the way he has defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children. There is an inconsistency here.

Hartree (1984) raises a further problem. Has Knowles provided us with a theory or a set of guidelines for practice? The assumptions 'can be read as descriptions of the adult learner... or as prescriptive statements about what the adult learner should be like' (Hartree 1984 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 250). This links with the point made by Tennant - there seems to be a failure to set and interrogate these ideas within a coherent and consistent conceptual framework. As Jarvis (1987b) comments, throughout his writings there is a propensity to list characteristics of a phenomenon without interrogating the literature of the arena (e.g. as in the case of andragogy) or looking through the lens of a coherent conceptual system. Undoubtedly he had a number of important insights, but because they are not tempered by thorough analysis, they were a hostage to fortune - they could be taken up in an ahistorical or atheoretical way.
The assumptions explored

With these things in mind we can look at the assumptions that Knowles makes about adult learners:

1. Self-concept: As a person matures his self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being. The point at which a person becomes an adult, according to Knowles, psychologically, 'is that point at which he perceives himself to be wholly self-directing. And at that point he also experiences a deep need to be perceived by others as being self-directing' (Knowles 1983: 56). As Brookfield (1986) points out, there is some confusion as to whether self-direction is meant here by Knowles to be an empirically verifiable indicator of adulthood. He does say explicitly that it is an assumption. However, there are some other immediate problems:

* both Erikson and Piaget have argued that there are some elements of self-directedness in children's learning (Brookfield 1986: 93). Children are not dependent learners for much of the time, ‘quite the contrary, learning for them is an activity which is natural and spontaneous' (Tennant 1988: 21). It may be that Knowles was using ‘self-direction’ in a particular way here or needed to ask a further question - 'dependent or independent with respect to what?'

* the concept is culturally bound - it arises out of a particular (humanist) discourse about the self which is largely North American in its expression. This was looked at last week - and will be returned to in future weeks.

2. Experience: As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. The next step is the belief that adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques of education such as discussion or problem solving (Knowles 1980: 43). The immediate problem we have is the unqualified way in which the statement is made. There may be times when experiential learning is not appropriate - such as when substantial amounts of new information is required. We have to ask the question, what is being learnt, before we can make judgements.

A second aspect here is whether children's and young people's experiences are any less real or less rich than those of adults. They may not have the accumulation of so many years, but the experiences they have are no less consuming, and still have to be returned to, entertained, and made sense of. Does the fact that they have 'less' supposed experience make any significant difference to the process? A reading of Dewey (1933) and the literature on reflection (e.g. Boud et al 1985) would support the argument that age and amount of experience makes no educational difference. If this is correct, then the case for the distinctiveness of adult learning is seriously damaged. This is of fundamental significance if, as Brookfield (1986: 98) suggests, this second assumption of andragogy 'can arguably lay claim to be viewed as a "given" in the literature of adult learning'.

3. Readiness to learn. As a person matures his readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his social roles. As Tennant (1988: 21-22) puts it, 'it is difficult to see how this assumption has any implication at all for the process of learning, let alone how this process should be differentially applied to adults and children'. Children also have to perform social roles.

Knowles does, however, make some important points at this point about 'teachable' moments. The relevance of study or education becomes clear as it is needed to carry out a particular task. At this point more ground can be made as the subject seems relevant.

However, there are other problems. These appear when he goes on to discuss the implications of the assumption. 'Adult education programs, therefore, should be organised around 'life application' categories and sequenced according to learners readiness to learn' (1980: 44)

First, as Brookfield comments, these two assumptions can easily lead to a technological interpretation of learning that is highly reductionist. By this he means that things can become rather instrumental and move in the direction of competencies. Language like 'life application' categories reeks of skill-based models - where learning is reduced to a series of objectives and steps (a product orientation). We learn things that are useful rather than interesting or intriguing or because something fills us with awe. It also thoroughly underestimates just how much we learn for the pleasure it brings (see below).

Second, as Humphries (1988) has suggested, the way he treats social roles - as worker, as mother, as friend, and so on, takes as given the legitimacy of existing social relationships. In other words, there is a deep danger of reproducing oppressive forms.

4. Orientation to learning. As a person matures his time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of problem centredness. This is not something that Knowles sees as 'natural' but rather it is conditioned (1984: 11). It follows from this that if young children were not conditioned to be subject-centred then they would be problem-centred in their approach to learning. This has been very much the concern of progressives such as Dewey. The question here does not relate to age or maturity but to what may make for effective teaching. We also need to note here the assumption that adults have a greater wish for immediacy of application. Tennant (1988: 22) suggests that a reverse argument can be made for adults being better able to tolerate the postponed application of knowledge.

Last, Brookfield argues that the focus on competence and on 'problem-centredness' in Assumptions 3 and 4 undervalues the large amount of learning undertaken by adults for its innate fascination. '[M]uch of adults' most joyful and personally meaningful learning is undertaken with no specific goal in mind. It is unrelated to life tasks and instead represents a means by which adults can define themselves' (Brookfield 1986: 99).

5. Motivation to learn: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12). Again, Knowles does not see this as something 'natural' but as conditioned - in particular, through schooling. This assumption sits awkwardly with the view that adults' readiness to learn is 'the result of the need to perform (externally imposed) social roles and that adults have a problem-centred (utilitarian) approach to learning' (Tennant 1988: 23).

In sum it could be said that these assumptions tend to focus on age and stage of development. As Ann Hanson (1996: 102) has argued, this has been at the expense of questions of purpose, or of the relationship between individual and society
Andragogy and pedagogy

As we compare Knowles' versions of pedagogy and andragogy what we can see is a mirroring of the difference between what is known as the romantic and the classical curriculum (although this is confused by the introduction of behaviourist elements such as the learning contract). As Jarvis (1985) puts it, perhaps even more significantly is that for Knowles 'education from above' is pedagogy, while 'education of equals' is andragogy. As a result, the contrasts drawn are rather crude and do not reflect debates within the literature of curriculum and pedagogy.

A comparison of the assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy following Knowles (Jarvis 1985: 51)

	Pedagogy	Andragogy
The learner	Dependent. Teacher directs what, when, how a subject is learned and tests that it has been learned	Moves towards independence. Self-directing. Teacher encourages and nurtures this movement
The learner's experience	Of little worth. Hence teaching methods are didactic	A rich resource for learning. Hence teaching methods include discussion, problem-solving etc.
Readiness to learn	People learn what society expects them to. So that the curriculum is standardized.	People learn what they need to know, so that learning programmes organised around life application.
Orientation to learning	Acquisition of subject matter. Curriculum organized by subjects.	Learning experiences should be based around experiences, since people are performance centred in their learning

We need to be extremely cautious about claiming that there is anything distinctive about andragogy. In his reference to romantic and classic notions of curriculum Jarvis (1985) brings out that what lies behind these formulations are competing conceptualizations of education itself. Crucially, these are not directly related to the age or social status of learners. There are various ways of categorizing strands of educational thinking and practice - and they are somewhat more complex than Knowles' setting of pedagogy against andragogy. In North American education debates, for example, four main forces can be identified in the twentieth century: the liberal educators; the scientific curriculum makers; the developmental/person-centred; and the social meliorists (those that sought more radical social change) (after Kliebart 1987). Another way of looking at these categories (although not totally accurate) is as those who see curriculum as:

* the transmission of knowledge,
* product
* process, and
* praxis.

Viewed in this way - Knowles' version of pedagogy looks more like transmission; and andragogy, as represented in the chart, like process. But as we have seen, he mixes in other elements - especially some rather mechanistic assumptions and ideas which can be identified with scientific curriculum making.
Andragogy - the continuing debate

By 1984 Knowles had altered his position on the distinction between pedagogy and andragogy. The child-adult dichotomy became less marked. He claimed, as above, that pedagogy was a content model and andragogy a process model but the same criticisms apply concerning his introduction of behaviourist elements. He even added the fifth assumption: As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (1984: 12). Yet while there have been these shifts, the tenor of his work, as Jarvis (1987b) argues, still seems to suggest that andragogy is related to adult learning and pedagogy to child learning.

There are those, like Davenport (1993) or the Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983) who believe it is possible to breathe life into the notion of andragogy - but they tend to founder on the same point. Kidd, in his study of how adults learn said the following:

[W]hat we describe as adult learning is not a different kind or order from child learning. Indeed our main point is that man must be seen as a whole, in his lifelong development. Principles of learning will apply, in ways that we shall suggest to all stages in life. The reason why we specify adults throughout is obvious. This is the field that has been neglected, not that of childhood. (Kidd 1978: 17)

If Kidd is correct then the search for andragogy is pointless. There is no basis in the characteristics of adult learners upon which to construct a comprehensive theory. Andragogy can be seen as an idea that gained popularity in at a particular moment - and its popularity probably says more about the ideological times (Jarvis 1995: 93) than it does about learning processes.
Further reading and references

Here I have listed the main texts proposing 'andragogy' - and inevitably it is the work of Malcolm Knowles that features.

Knowles, M. (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education. From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd edn). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge. 400 pages. Famous as a revised edition of Knowles' statement of andragogy - however, there is relatively little sustained exploration of the notion. In many respects a 'principles and practice text'. Part one deals with the emerging role and technology of adult education (the nature of modern practice, the role and mission of the adult educator, the nature of andragogy). Part 2 deals organizing and administering comprehensive programmes (climate and structure in the organization, assessing needs and interests, defining purpose and objectives, program design, operating programs, evaluation). Part three is entitled 'helping adults learn and consists of a chapter concerning designing and managing learning activities. There are around 150 pages of appendices containing various exhibits - statements of purpose, evaluation materials, definitions of andragogy.

Knowles, M. et al (1984) Andragogy in Action. Applying modern principles of adult education, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. A collection of chapters examining different aspects of Knowles' formulation.

Knowles, M. S. (1990) The Adult Learner. A neglected species (4e), Houston: Gulf Publishing. First appeared in 1973. 292 + viii pages. Surveys learning theory, andragogy and human resource development (HRD). The section on andragogy has some reflection on the debates concerning andragogy. Extensive appendices which includes planning checklists,policy statements and some articles by Knowles - creating lifelong learning communities, from teacher to facilitator etc.

Nottingham Andragogy Group (1983) Towards a Developmental Theory of Andragogy, Nottingham: University of Nottingham Department of Adult Education. 48 pages. Brief review of the andragogy debate to that date. Section 1 deals with adult development; section 2 with the empirical and theoretical foundations for a theory of andragogy; and section 3 proposes a model and theory.

Some critiques of the notion of andragogy - and more particularly the work of Knowles can be found in:

Davenport (1993) 'Is there any way out of the andragogy mess?' in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and A. Hanson (eds.) Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London; Routledge. (First published 1987). Jarvis, P. (1987a) 'Malcolm Knowles' in P. Jarvis (ed.) Twentieth Century Thinkers in Adult Education, London: Croom Helm. Tennant, M. (1988, 1996) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge. Other references Boud, D. et al (1985) Reflection. Turning experience into learning, London: Kogan Page. Brookfield, S. D. (1986) Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. A comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Cross, K. P. (1981) Adults as Learners. Increasing participation and facilitating learning (1992 edn.), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think, New York: D. C. Heath. Hanson, A. (1996) 'The search for separate theories of adult learning: does anyone really need andragogy?' in Edwards, R., Hanson, A., and Raggatt, P. (eds.) Boundaries of Adult Learning. Adult Learners, Education and Training Vol. 1, London: Routledge. Humphries, B. (1988) 'Adult learning in social work education: towards liberation or domestication'. Critical Social Policy No. 23 pp.4-21. Jarvis, P. (1985) The Sociology of Adult and Continuing Education, Beckenham: Croom Helm. Kidd, J. R. (1978) How Adults Learn (3rd. edn.),Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice Hall Regents. Kliebart, H. M. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893-1958, New York : Routledge. Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991)Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1996; 1999) 'Andragogy', the encyclopaedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm. Last update: October 23, 2007.

© Mark K. Smith 1996, 1999

(source: http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm, 16 november 2007)

pedagogy vs andragogy: intro

Pedagogy , the art or science of being a teacher, generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction. The word comes from the Ancient Greek (paidagōgeō; from (child) and (lead)): literally, "to lead the child”. In Ancient Greece, was (usually) a slave who supervised the education of his master’s son (girls were not publicly educated). This involved taking him to school or a gym, looking after him and carrying his equipment (e.g. musical instruments).

The Latin-derived word for pedagogy, education, is nowadays used in the English-speaking world to refer to the whole context of instruction, learning, and the actual operations involved therein, although both words have roughly the same original meaning. In the English-speaking world the term pedagogy refers to the science or theory of educating.

Pedagogy is also sometimes referred to as the correct use of teaching strategies (see instructional theory). For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adults as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those teaching strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of teaching are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experiences, personal situations, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought.

An academic degree, Ped.D., Doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some American universities to distinguished educators (in the US and UK earned degrees within the education field are classified as an Ed.D., Doctor of Education or a Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy). The term is also used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field (for instance, a Doctor of Music degree "in piano pedagogy").

(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy, 16 november 2007)


Andragogy is the process of engaging adult learners in the structure of the learning experience. The term was originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator, Malcolm Knowles , (April 24, 1913 -- November 27, 1997).

Knowles held that andragogy (from the Greek words meaning "adult-leading") should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy (Greek: "child-leading").

Knowles' theory can be stated as four simple postulates:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept and Motivation to learn).
2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities (Experience).
3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life (Readiness to learn).
4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation to learning).

Knowles' work (most notably the book Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers, published in 1975) has been controversial. To some, his proposed system states the obvious, to others, he has merely proposed an adaptation of existing child-learning theories.

The term has been used by some to allow a discussion of the difference between self directed and 'taught' education. However as the attitudes of society towards young people change, the differences in educational methods will tend to diminish. (Self directed education is encouraged in earlier age groups).

(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogy, 16 november 2007)

BAJET

Bajet atau perancangan kewangan adalah antara intipati dalam aspek pengurusan. bajet yang baik adalah penting dalam memastikan pengurusan modal insan dan sumber fizikal dalam sesebuah organisasi ditadbir dengan efektif dan efisien. sering kali timbul masalah atau isu-isu kritikal sekitar perkara yang berkaitan dengan 'wang'. berikut adalah cedukan artikel (sumber: http://www.harakahdaily.net/bm/index.php/arkib-liputan-khas/belanjawan-negara-kelantan-dizalimi-berbelas-kali.html)

berkaitan isu ini. artikel secara ilmiah berdasarkan kajian kes ini akan saya susulkan kemudian, insya Allah.

Belanjawan Negara: Kelantan dizalimi berbelas kali

Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat Wed | Sep 19, 07 | 10:53:23 am MYT

Secara kebetulan, sewaktu bajet 2008 sedang dibentangkan, saya sedang mentelaah maksud Surah Al Ahqaaf Ayat 29 – 35 mengenai kisah serombongan jin.

Walaupun kesemua ayat-ayat ini cukup menarik, mari kita mukadimmahkan artikel ini dengan petikan Ayat Ke 29 surah berkenaan untuk renungan:

“Dan (ingatlah) ketika Kami hadapkan serombongan jin kepadamu yang mendengarkan Al-Quran, maka tatkala mereka menghadiri pembacaannya (lalu) mereka berkata: “Diamlah kamu (untuk mendengarkannya)”. Ketika pembacaan telah selesai mereka kembali kepada kaumnya (untuk) memberi peringatan.”

Belanjawan adalah satu pelan perancangan. Ia adalah “planning tool”. Dalam mana-mana pelan perbelanjaan untuk masa hadapan, tidak dapat tidak ia adalah pengisytiharan untuk memberitahu apa yang akan dilakukan di tahun seterusnya.

Ini projeknya dan ini jumlah wangnya. Di mana, untuk siapa dan faedah-faedah jangkaannya. Ini perkara biasa. Bagaimanapun, dalam asyik bercerita itulah, orang yang berada di atas boleh leka memukul canang bahawa ini dari saya dan itu dari saya untuk kamu kepada kamu.Ini yang saya fikir perlu diperbetulkan.

Mengagih-agihkan nikmat Allah

Sepatutnya dalam masa ucapan belanjawan, kita jangan dilihat putus dengan tali Allah Yang Maha Kaya dan Maha Memiliki seluruh Kerajaan Langit dan Bumi. Kita cuma perancang dan pengatur dalam meramukan apa jua anugerah yang sedia ada. Sehabis boleh kita dakwa hanyalah kita membuat penemuan.

Kita “discover” satu kaedah baru misalnya dalam mengagih-agihkan nikmat Allah SWT. Ini baru dinamakan syukur dalam erti kata yang sehabis asli.

Persoalan yang penting ialah sama ada belanjawan itu membawa keadilan atau tidak kepada seluruh masyarakat tanpa mengira bulu?

Dimanakah misalnya faedah-faedah hiliran yang mungkin dapat dikutip oleh kontraktor-kontraktor kecil dari kek baru belanjawan 2008 yang bernilai RM159 bilion itu? Apakah nasib sebahagian penduduk Melaka yang diancam oleh kekotoran bau dan air najis khinzir boleh terbela dengan ucapan Belanjawan itu? Apakah langkah strategik untuk membendung kenaikan harga barang-barang yang boleh dijanjikan oleh belanjawan kali ini

Ertinya di sini, belanjawan harus berbicara dan berkomunikasi secara langsung dengan kehidupan dan hati nurani rakyat. Bertolak dari keadilan berasaskan Ayat 90 Surah An Nahl Allah SWT ada berfirman bermaksud: “Sesungguhnya Allah menyuruh (kamu) berlaku adil dan berbuat kebajikan, memberi kepada kaum kerabat, dan Allah melarang dari perbuatan keji, kemungkaran dan permusuhan. Dia memberi pengajaran kepadamu agar kamu dapat mengambil pelajaran.”

Ayat ini sangat dituntut oleh Allah SWT sehingga ia dibaca oleh semua Tok-Tok Khatib di Mimbar Jumaat secara mingguan.

Belanjawan Negara 2008 mesti mampu membuat “spiritual address” yang begini. Bersifat mesra kebajikan, berpaksikan keadilan. Adil pula bermakna meletakkan segala sesuatu sesuai dengan tempatnya.

Di Kelantan misalnya, apa erti belanjawan negara yang ada menyediakan sejumlah peruntukan tertentu untuk negeri ini tetapi ia ditadbir, diurus, dipantau dan dilaksanakan oleh JPP tanpa melalui Kerajaan Negeri.

Tentu semua orang boleh bersetuju bahawa Kerajaan Kelantan ini adalah sebuah kerajaan demokratik yang sah. Membuat “political bypass” melalui JPP adalah sebuah pencolekan kuasa (power hijack) atau coup de’ tat yang nakal dari pemilik khazanah di Pusat.

Kelantan dizalimi berbelas kali dalam belanjawan negara

Maka, tinggallah kami bermata putih, terkelip-kelip bagaikan tikus kurus yang cuma memerhati wang dan peruntukan, one-off dan subsidi lalu hilir mudik di depan tangga kami.

Tidakkah pembentang belanjawan negara sedar bahawa JPP yang diwujudkan di Kelantan telah meletakkan mercu tanda keangkuhan yang membibitkan pula penindasan, penyelewengan kuasa, pembaziran dan pertindihan fungsi?

Bagaimana boleh kita bayangkan seorang Ketua Eksekutif Kerajaan Negeri yang sah tiba-tiba dinafikan hak untuk mengikuti perancangan dan mengikuti pemantauan pelaksanaan semua projek yang diatur didalam rumah tangganya.

Ini bukan berlaku setahun dua, bahkan sudah memasuki pusingannya bagi kali yang ke-17. Ia dikitar kezalimannya sudah berbelas kali.

Jika kami takdirnya salah, tolong jelaskan di mana salahnya Kerajaan Kelantan sekarang.

Salahkah dengan demokrasi atau dengan Islam sehingga semua peruntukan pembangunan daripada Pusat mesti diserahkan melalui JPP yang lengkap dengan kerajaan sendiri.

Sekali difikir-fikir, seakan-akan Kerajaan Kelantan yang ada ini tidak sah. Ia dibatalkan keabsahannya oleh Kerajaan Pusat melalui JPP.

Bagaimanapun, terkini, apa yang mula kelihatan ialah adanya sedikit kerjasama dan keterbukaan sewaktu bajet dibentangkan.

Kelantan juga turut merasai adanya cadangan-cadangan seperti mengadakan Universiti-Universiti, jalan-jalan raya termasuk Jambatan Kedua Sultan Yahya. Saya berharap, keterbukaan kedua-dua belah daun pintu ini akan dapat hidup subur, disegera dan dikekalkan.

Ia terbuka untuk meraikan kerjasama dan dapat dirapatkan semula jika keadaan memerlukan.

Keadilan bukan sahaja tuntutan demokrasi bahkan kewajiban Islam yang akan dibalas dengan syurga dan neraka.

Menteri Besar Kelantan

10 easy steps to office health

10 easy steps to office health

1. avoid office affairs
office affairs become unhealthy when they go wrong, with increased levels of depression and drop in morale. this has become such a problem that some companies make their employees sign "love contracts", which force them to declare any relationships they strike up at work.

2. go home earlier
There is a link between number of hours worked and risk of increased blood pressure.
- working 40 hours a week vs working 11-39 hours a week ; 14% increased risk of hypertension
- working 41-50 hours a week ; 17% increased risk of hypertension
- working more than 51 hours a week ; 29% increased risk of hypertension

3. use the stairs
people who climb the stairs vs use the lift
- lower cholesterol
- better breathing
- healthier heart
- weight less

4. move the computer screen
having a computer screen in the wrong position can lead to headaches, tiredness & long-term neck, back, shoulder and wrist pain. so, make sure that the top of the screen is at your eye level.

5. buy potted plants
it will reduce the risk of dry throats and stuffed-up noses. it is also on account of improvements in air quality or the psychological effects of a leafy environment.

6. ration email
1/3 workers is suffering from email stress. try not to check email so regularly.

7. let it all out
bottling up emotions is not good for us and may play a role in depression and heart disease. keeping "emotion diary", and encouraged them to express feeling, may experienced less stress and better overall health.

8. decorate your office
the right color and level of lightning can improve mood and reduce headaches.

9. choose your desk wisely
nab a desk nest to a window but away from printer.

10. consider going it alone
research indicates that people who take the plunge and become self-employed report a higher level of job satisfaction and less stress. self employed people had greater autonomy and less job pressure than those in big organisations.

(source: news strait s times, (world, page 53) sept 9, 2007)

management style: warren buffett

Warren Buffett views himself as a capital allocator above anything else. His primary responsibility is to allocate capital to businesses with good economics and keep their existing management to lead the company.

When Buffett acquires a controlling interest in a business, he makes clear to the owner the following:

* He will not interfere with the running of the company.
* He will be responsible for hiring and setting the compensation of the top executive.
* Capital allocated to the business will have a price tag (a hurdle rate) attached.

This process is to motivate owners to send excess capital that does not return more than its cost to Berkshire headquarters rather than investing it at low returns.[citation needed] This cash is then free to be invested in opportunities that offer higher returns.

Buffett's hands-off approach has held strong appeal and created room for his managers to perform as owners and ultimate decision makers of their businesses. This acquisition strategy enabled Buffett to buy companies at fair prices because the sellers wanted room to operate independently after selling.

Besides his skills in managing Berkshire's cash flow, Buffett is skilled in managing the company's balance sheet. Since taking over Berkshire Hathaway, Buffett has weighed every decision against its impact on the balance sheet. As of 2005, he has succeeded in building Berkshire into one of the nine companies that are still rated by S&P as AAA, the highest credit rating achievable and thus, with the lowest cost of debt. Buffett takes comfort in his belief that, for the near future, his company will not be one of those shaken by economic or natural catastrophes. He has repeated over the years that his catastrophe insurance operation is the only one he knows of that can keep the checks clearing during a financial turmoil.

(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Buffett)

pengurusan tekanan (stress)

definisi

reaksi badan yg tidak menentu atau tidak spesifik (non specific reaction) pada suatu keadaan yang dihadapi (dr hars selye, stress management, medical conditions & stress, about, inc: 2002; http://stress.about.com/csi medical conditions/)


2 jenis stres

1. eustress (tekanan yang membawa kesan yang positif)
a. ada persiapan yang rapi untuk menghadapinya
b. melahirkan kesedaran & keinsafan

firman ALLAH SWT, "sesungguhnya kami akan mengujimu dengan sedikit ketakutan, kelaparan, kekurangan harta, jiwa & buah-buhan. dan berikan berita gembira kepada mereka yang bersabar" (al-baqarah: 155)

2. distress (tekanan yang membawa kesan yang negatif)
a. tidak dapat dikawal
b. menyebabkan kesugulan, putus asa, keinginan membunuh diri dll.


4 kategori stres

1. tekanan jangkaan (anticipatory stress): kerisauan berhubung perkara yang belum berlaku, disebabkan cenderung untuk mereka-reka & mengandaikan masa depan yang negatif.

2. tekanan semasa (situatuonal stress): tekanan yang dialami ketika seseorang benar-benar berhadapan dengan masalah/tragedi

3. tekanan kronik (chronic stress): hasil daripada masalah/konflik yang berlarutan

4. tekanan lampau (residual stress): pengalaman pesakit di masa lampau yang tidak boleh dilupakan


10 punca utama stres

1. masalah kewangan
2. masalah kerjaya
3. memikul terlalu banyak tanggungjawab
4. masalah rumah tangga
5. masalah kesihatan
6. masalah anak-anak
7. kesunyian
8. masalah seks
9. masalah saudara mara
10. masalah jiran


kesan stres terhadap kesihatan

1. darah tinggi
2. kenaikan kadar kolestrol
3. sakit jantung
4. melemahkan sistem pertahanan badan
5. kuman hiv membiak dengan lebih cepat
6. kesugulan
7. sakit mulut
8. lemah memori
9. masalah melakukan hubungan seks
10. kecacatan bayi


kaedah mengawal stres

1. penyucian hati
2. zikir & ibadah yang khusyuk
3. bersyukur & menjauhi sifat tamak
4. pemikiran positif & tidak mudah putus asa
5. hidup yang seimbang adalah penawar
6. berpuasa
7. membantu orang lain
8. memilih pasangan hidup & rakan-rakan yang baik
9. hiburan yang tidak melampau
10. senaman
11. jenaka, senyum & ketawa
12. mennjauhi rokok & arak
13. tidur yang mencukupi
14. warna persekitaran yang sesuai
15. berdoa dengan khusyuk

(sumber: dr danial zainal abidin (2007), perubatan islam dan bukti sains moden (edisi kemas kini), pts millenia sdn bhd, kuala lumpur)

5s (seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu, shitsuke)

definisi kualiti

1. menepati kehendak piawaian (crosby)
2. memenuhi kepuasan pelanggan (ishikawa)
3. kesesuaian untuk penggunaan (juran)
4. darjah kecemerlangan (kamus oxford)


kepentingan kualiti

1. kepuasan pelanggan
2. mengurangkan kos


kos kualiti

terbahagi kepada dua iaitu;

1. kos mengawal:
a. kos pencegahan: kos bagi mengelakkan daripada berlakunya kegagalan
b. kos penilaian: kos bagi menjalankan ujian dan pemeriksaan bagi menilai kualiti yang ditentukan diperlihara

2. kos kegagalan:
a. kegagalan dalaman: kos yang berpunca dari produk atau perkhidmatan yang gagal memenuhi kehendak kualiti sebelum ianya dihantar kepada pelanggan
b. kos hail daripada produk atau perkhidmatan yang gagl memenuhi kehendak kualiti selepas penghantaran


definisi amalan 5s

merupakan satu konsep kebersihan di tempat kerja yang bertujuan untuk mengekal dan memperbaiki amalan-amalan penjagaan kebersihan yang telah dijalnkan di tempat kerja


3 kategori tempat kerja

1. tempat kerja kelas 3:
a. para pekerja membuang sampah merata-rata dan tiada siapa yang membersihkannya
b. sentiasa berselerak dan tiada siapa membersihkannya

2. tempat kerjas kelas 2:
a. sekumpulan orang membuang sampah dan sekumpulan lagi membersihkannya

3. tempat kerja kelas 3
a. tiada pekerja membuang sampah merata-rata
b. pekerja sendiri melakukan proses pembersihan


makna dan prinsip 5s

1. seiri: 'asingkan', iaitu mengasingkan barang-barang yang tidak diperlukan di tempat kerja dan membuangnya
a. mengadakan krateria pembuangan berdasarkan kepada darjah keperluan barangan
b. membuang barang2 yang tidak diperlukan kepunyaan sendiri, orang lain dan syarikat

2. seiton: 'susun', iaitu menyusun barang2 dan peralatan dengan teratur dan kemas
a. zon2 ditandakan untuk bahan mentah, barangan dalam proses dan barangan siap
b. perkakas2 disusun dengan kemas dan diletakkan berdekatan dengan tempat pengunaan

3. seiso: 'bersih', membersihkan tempat kerja dengan rapi supaya tiada sampah dan habuk di atas lantai, barang-barang, mesin dan perkakas
a. menentukn apakah yang perlu dibersihkan dan siapakah yang bertanggungjawab untuk menjalan proses pembersihan
b. menentukan kaedah-kaedah yang kan digunakan untuk menjlankan proses pembersihan.

4. seiketsu: 'piawai', memelihara taraf penjagaan kebersihan dan penyusunan tempat kerja yang tinggi di setiap masa melalui pengurusan visual dan pempiawaian
a. mengadakan tanda-tanda untuk mencegah pekerja daripada membuat ralat-ralat
operasi
b. menyediakan manual 5s

5. shitsuke: 'disiplin', melatih pekerja supaya mematuhi peraturan-peraturan penjagaan kebersihan
a. pembentukan sikap melalui latihan 5s
b. melaksanakan amalan 5s secara harian, mingguan dan berkala

pengurusan sumber manusia (latihan asas keusahawanan)

pengurusan organisasi (4 bidang utama)

1. pengurusan pentadbiran
2. pengurusan operasi
3. pengurusan manusia
4. pengurusan pelanggan


peranan - pengurusan sumber manusia

1. pengambilan
2. penempatan
3. latihan
4. waktu bekerja
5. upah & faedah
6. disiplin
7. keselamatan


contoh organisasi - pengurusan sumber manusia

1. jabatan buruh
2. jabatan hal ehwal, kesatuan sekerja
3. jabatan perhubungan perusahaan
4. jabatan keselamatan dan kesihatan pekerjaan
5. jabatan tenaga rakyat


pengambilan pekerja

1. tujuan ambil pekerja?
2. jawatan apa?
3. spesifikasi tugas (senarai tugas dan tanggungjawab)
4. spesifikasi individu
5. bentuk kerja (tetap atau sementara)
6. gred jawatan?
7. skala gaji?


kaedah mendapat pemohon?

1. iklan
2. internet
3. rakan-rakan
4. kolej tempatan
5. agensi pekerjaan
6. rakan pekerja


kaedah pengambilan

1. borang permohonan
2. temuduga
3. semakan perujuk
4. ujian


apabila kita dah pilih...

1. sediakan surat tawaran beserta terma dan syarat perkhidmatan
2. minta pekerja tandatangan salinan surat tawaran
3. kandungan kontrak:
a. nama, jawatan, kerja atau tugas
b. kadar upah
c. elaun dan lebih masa
d. tempoh upah
e. waktu kerja biasan & waktu rehat
f. cuti
g. tempoh percubaan
h. tempoh penamatan kontrak
i. dan lain-lain maklumat yg perlu


melatih kakitangan (pengambilan pekerja baru)

1. tujuan: penyesuaian diri dan pembangunan pengetahuan mengenai syarikat dan operasinya.

2. kandungan program induksi;
a. rekod peribadi
b. prosedur waktu rakam waktu kerja
c. tanda nama
d. waktu kerja dan rehat
e. faedah kesihatan dan kebajikan
f. peraturan syarikat
g. sistem pembayaran gaji
h. prosedur ambil cuti
i. memperkenal pekerja kepada pegawai-pegawai
j. lawatan sambil belajar
k. struktur organisasi
l. huraian wawasan & misi syarikat
m. menerapkan nilai-nilai teras serta piagam pelanggan
n. menerangkan jenis perancangan masa depan syarikat


melatih kakitangan (pekerja yang sedia ada)

tujuan: proses pembangunan yang berterusn dan pencapaian kecemerlangan.

1. program peningkatan prestasi
2. program pembangunan kemahiran
3. program pembentukan sikap
4. program teras


melatih kakitangan (pekerja yang veteren)

tujuan: memotivasi, jangan jadi 'besi berkarat', jadikan mereka mentor, jadikan mereka jurulatih, jadikan mereka pembimbing.

1. reorientasi
2. program mentor-mentee
3. program persaraan


waktu bekerja

1. maksimum: 48 jam / seminggu (8 jam / sehari x 6 hari bekerja)
2. waktu rehat tak dikira waktu kerja
3. bekerja 5 jam berturut-turut perlu diberi setengah jam rehat
4. tiada peruntukan undang-undang bagi hari jumaat


cuti awam

1. semua pekerja mesti diberi cuti sekurang-kurangnya 10 hari cuti awam berbayar, 4 hari darinya termasuk:

a. hari kebangsaan
b. hari pekerja
c. hari keputeraan agong
d. hari keputeraan pemerintah negeri/hari wilayah

berikut adalah cuti awam yang biasa diperuntukkan:

a. hari gawai
b. thaipusam
c. hari wesak
d. hari guru
e. hari raya
f. deepavali


perintah bekerja semasa cuti awam

boleh, jika:

1. berlaku kemalangan di tempat kerja
2. kecemasan
3. gangguan tak diramal
4. pekhidmatan kritikal
a. bank
b. pembekal kuasa elektrik
c. pos
d. bomba
e. polis
f. tol lebuhraya
g. lapangan terbang
h. pelabuhan
i. penjara
j. dan lain-lain


overtime (kerja lebih masa)

tidak boleh 4 jam sehari atau 104 jam sebulan:

upah o.t.:
1. satu setengah lebih tinggi dari sejam gaji sehari (hari biasa)
2. dua kali ganda (hari cuti rehat)
3. tiga kali ganda (hari cuti awam)


faedah yang wajib disediakan

1. faedah perubatan
2. cuti sakit
3. caruman kwsp
4. caruman perkeso
5. cuti tahunan


menangani pekerja bermasalah

1. ingatan (reminder)
2. nasihat (advice)
3. motivasi (motivate)
4. teguran (reprimand)
5. amaran (warning)
6. bimbing (coach)
7. kaunseling (counsel)
8. hapus kita (fire them)


(sumber: modul pengurusan sumber manusia (latihan asas keusahawanan), sulaiman haji saaid (budi antara sdn bhd), sijil keusahawan prosper siswazah, 2005)

pemasaran peruncitan: promosi dan pengiklanan

definisi pengiklanan

courtland l. boyee & william i. arens (contemporary advertising): pengiklanan ialah komunikasi bukan peribadi tentang maklumat yang biasanya dibayar dan bersifat memujuk tentang keluaran, barangan, perkhidmatan atau idea oleh penaja yang dikenal pasti dan dilakukan melalui pelbagai media.

komunikasi bukan dilakukan secara bersemuka atau secara peribadi: tidak dilakukan antara satu individu dengan satu individu dengan satu individu yang lain secara rapat dan mesra seperti dalam penjualan persendirian atau penjualan dari pintu ke pintu; dibayar oleh penaja.

selalunya bersifat memujuk:
a) iklan merayu untuk melakukan sesuatu/mempengaruhi seseorang supaya menukar fikiran tentang sesuatu atau terus menggunakan keluaran, perkhidmatan atau idea yang diiklankan.
b) meyakinkan barangan/perkhidmatan itu berfaedah

peringatan kepada pengguna; memberitahu tentang kewujudan barangan/perkhidmatan dengan tujuan mengingatkan pengguna, bukan memujuk

menjual perkhidmatan; cth bank, pos, stesyen, minyak, dsb.

melalui pelbagai media


jenis-jenis pengiklanan

1. pengiklanan pengguna: ditujukan kepada orang perseorangan atau pengguna yang membeli baranagn atas sebab-sebab peribadi (kegunaan sendiri/seisi rumah)

2. pengiklanan perniagaan: digolongkan kepada pengiklanan dagang, industri dan profesional, ditaja oleh pengilang atau pengedar untuk menggalakkan pemborong dan peruncit membelu serta menyimpan barangan untuk tujuan jualan balik kepada pengguna


fungsi pengiklanan

1. memberi pengenalan kepada keluaran (barangan dan perkhidmatan) dan membezakannya daripada orang lain.

2. mengenal pasti dan dapat membezakan keluaran di pasaran melalui jenama, pembungkusan, harga dsb

3. menyampaikan maklumat tentang keluaran, ciri-cirinya, spesifikasi dan temapt jualan (bagi barangan)

4. menggalakkan pengguna mengguna keluaran baru dan mencadangkan penggunaan ulangan (melalui faedah-faedah yang ditonjolkan mendorong pengguna mencuba dan membeli)

5. mendorong jualan promosi; melalui insentif-insentif yang diberikan, seperti peraduan, potongan harga, kupon, rayuan iklan yang berulang dsb. mendorong pengguna membuat pembelian ulangan.

6. menggalakkan pengedaran sesuatu keluaran; dengan penggalakkan pembelian dan permintaan bertambah mendorong peruncit/pemorong untuk membuat tempahan dan menyimpan stok

7. membina keutamaan dan kesetiaan jenama (brand loyalty). wujud melalui kepuasan pengguna ke atas nilai, mutu, kualiti sesuatu keluaran itu


media pengiklanan

1. media 'above the line'
a) dianggap sebagai media utama (primary media)
b) dianggap sebagai media yang berbayar
c) media tergolong seperti: tv, radio, akhbar, majalah, billboard, dsb

2. media 'below the line'
a) media sokongan yang tidak ada bayaran komisen
b) media yang murah dan efektif
c) penerangan lengkap tantang keluaran atau promosi
d) contoh; risalah, katalog, brochure, banner, banting, poster, mobile, flag line, belon, kaunter, dll


jualan promosi

jualan promosi terdiri daripada insentif-insentif jangka pendek untuk menggalakkan pembelian atau jualan sesuatu keluaran atau perkhidmatan

objektif utama adalah untuk meningkatkan jualan untuk jangka masa pendek (1-3 bulan)

perbezaan: pengiklanan menawarkan sebab-sebab untuk membeli sesuatu keluaran atau perkhidmatan manakala promosi jualan menawarkan sebab untuk membeli sekarang


jenis-jenis jualan promosi

1. promosi pengguna: disasarkan kepada para pembeli akhir
2. promosi perniagaan: disasarkan kepada pelanggan perniagaan
3. promosi perdagangan: disasarkan kepada peruncit dan pemborong
4. promosi tenaga jualanL disasarkan kepada pasukan jualan


kepentingan jualan promosi

1. jumlah besar perbelanjaan pemasaran digunakan dalam promosi jualan (tren masakini)

2. tekanan meningkatkan jualan semasa syarikat; promosi dilihat sebagai satu alat jualan jangka pendek yang efektif serta membantu membezakan penawaran mereka

3. para pengguna telah menjadi semakin biasa disogokkan dengan kemudahan pembelian dan ini menyebabkan para peruncit meminta lebih banyak kemudahan seperti ini daripada para pengeluar

4. membantu membina syer pasaran jangka panjang

5. mendorong pengguna untuk mencuba satu keluaran baru

6. mendorong pengguna membeli dalam kuantiti yang tinggi

7. mendorong kesetiaan jenama dan pembelian ulangan

8. mengekalkan serta memberi ganjaran kepada pengguna yang setia

9. mengukuhkan kedudukan syarikat serta membina hubungan pelanggan untuk jangka panjang


alat-alat promosi pengguna

1. pek harga (potongan harga)
2. premium
3. ganjaran kesetiaan
4. promosi titik-pembelian
5. peraduan, cabutan bertuah dan permainan
6. kupon
7. tawaran pulangan tunai (rebet)
8. sampel
9. keistimewaan pengiklanan (cenderamata)
10. potongan harga (diskaun): untuk pembelian kuantiti yang tinggi dan untuk tingkatkan keuntungan
11. ganjaran/wang tolakan (komisyen/bonus)
12. jaminan pembelian semula ke atas barangan yang tidak dijual
13. barangan percuma: dengan pembelian kuantiti yang tertentu
14. peraduan: pencapaian kuota jualan
15. alat peragaan percuma: spt rak roti, kaunter rokok
16. premium, item-item pengiklanan istimewa
17. bahan-bahan promosi media 'below the line'


penilaian kempen jualan promosi

1. perbandingan jualan sebelum, semasa dan selepas kempen
2. permintaan sesuatu produk/jenam selepas kempen
3. reaksi pengguna dan pesaing terhadap kempen

(sumber: sijil keusahawanan prosper siswazah 2005, punb)

pemasaran berkesan - teknik kaedah dan perkhidmatan pelanggan

bidang masalah yang dihadapi oleh usahawan (berdasarkan laporan kementerian industri dan perdagangan antarabangsa malaysia)

1. kewangan
2. pemasaran
3. bahan mentah
4. peraturan dan undang-undang kerajaan
5. lesen dan permit
6. teknikal/pengeluaran/operasi
7. pentadbiran
8. tempat perniagaan


analisis status semasa industri kecil dan sederhana (iks) (sumber: small & medium industry development corporation malaysia - smidec)

1. kekurangan modal
2. tahap teknologi dan inovasi yang rendah
3. kekurangan peralatan yang canggih
4. kekurangan sumber manusia mahir dan terlatih secara teknikal
5. ketidak-mampuan untuk menambahbaik proses pengeluaran barisan produk baru
6. kemampuan penyelidikan dan pembangunan yang rendah
7. terlalu bergantung kepada pasaran domestik
8. kurang tumpuan terhadap kualiti, ciri-ciri produk (bungkusan dan label) serta kempen promosi yang tidak berkesan


cabaran (sumber: smidec malaysia)

1. pendekatan operasi-keberkesanan kos dan daya saing
2. teknologi dan proses
3. barisan produk
4. strategi pengurusan
5. pendekatan pemasaran
6. usaha kerjasama dalam penyelidikan dan pembangunan, penyelidikan pemasaran dan berkongsi pasaran
7. peralihan tumpuan terhadap pasaran global


pemasaran peruncitan

1. definisi pemasaran

apa sahaja usaha yang dijalankan bagi:
a) menawarkan produk/servis yang sesuai dengan lokasi, masa, harga, keperluan & kehendak pelanggan.
b) melaris & meningkatkan jualan produk/servis
c) memberi kepuasan/keseronokan/kegembiraan kepada pelanggan agar mengulangi pembelian secara berterusan
d) mengekal & meningkatkan keuntungan

2. konsep 4p

p = product
p = price
p = promotion
p = place

3. definisi peruncit

a) segala aktiviti perniagaan untuk menyampaikan (menjual) barangan atau perkhidmatan kepada pengguna akhir
b) peruncitan adalah sebahagian dari aktiviti pemasaran
c) peruncit yang berjaya; harus menawarkan produk yang betul, di lokasi yang tepat, pada masa yang sesuai, dalam kuantiti dan harga yang betul, dengan perkhidmatan yang cemerlang.

4. siapa peruncit?

pengeluar barangan ---------- ---------- pengguna/pelanggan
| |
V V
perantaran pemasaran
- pemborong
- stokis
- pengedar
- agen
- PERUNCIT

5. jenis peruncitan

a) peruncit perseorangan: perniagaan secara kecil-kecilan dengan operasi yang terhad dan dimiliki oleh orang perseorangan ataupun berkongsi dengan rakan-rakan atau ahli keluarga

b) rangkaian stor: dimiliki dan diuruskan oleh satu badan pusat. menjual barangan yang sama, susun atur, rupa bentuk dalaman dan luaran dan perkhidmtan yang sama. pengurusan prmosi, pembelian dan keputusan dilakukan pada peringkat pusat.

c) gedung perniagaan: sebuah perniagaan yang besar yang menawarkan barangan dalam satu kategori.

d) pasaraya/hyper market: sebuah perniagaan yang besar dan sederhana yang menawarkan pelbagai jenis barangan dalam pelbagai kategori.

e) speciality store: menawarkan pelbagai jenis barangan tetapi jenama dan bilangan yang terhad, memberi penekanan dan keperluan pelanggan yang khusus.

f) francais: perniagaan runcit yang melibatkan perjanjian kontrak antara satu perniagaan dengan peniaga syarikat utama. pemegang francais dinamakan 'francaisor', manakala pembeli francais dinamkan 'francaisi'.

g) ruang yang dipajak: perniagaan runcit yang berlaku dalam sebuah gedung perniagaan atau pasaraya yang besar. penyewa-penyewa ini dikenali sebagai 'concessionaire' yang mempunyai barangan berjenama.

h) koperasi pengguna: pengguna merupakan pemegang-pemegang saham yang terbesar. peruncitan ini dimili oleh ahli-ahli untuk kepentingan ahli-ahli juga.

i) peruncitan cara baru:
- peruncitan melalui tempahan secara pos (mail order)
- peruncitan melalui telefon
- peruncitan tas-talian (internet retailing)
- peruncitan tele-marketing
- mesin-mesin vending
- katalog shop (ruang pameran katalog)
- jualan langsung/peribadi


mengenalpasti peluang dalam pasaran

1. pasaran dan peluang-peluang pasaran (pasaran pengguna) sesuatu kawasan/tempat di mana adanya kuasa permintaan dan golongan individu berinteraksi untuk jual-beli sesuatu keluaran (produk/perkhidmatan)

2. peluang pasaran wujud berdasarkan keadaan persekitaran
- struktur penduduk, pendapatan dan citarasa
- kajian ke atas data-data import dan eksport
- kajian ke atas sumber-sumber tempatan dan penemuan teknologi
- rantaian-rantaian industri
- rancangan-rancangan pembangunan kerajaan dan swasta
- meneliti peluang-peluang perniagaan melalui akhbar dan majalah tempatan dan luar negeri
- mengkaji masalah-masalah sosial setempat
- undang-undang dan peraturan


tinjauan pasaran

a) satu keperluan untuk memasarkan sesuatu keluaran - organisasi perlu menganggarkan saiz pasaran semasa dan masa hadapan bagi keluaran tersebut

b) perlu memahami keperluan dan kehendak pasaran

c) perlu memastikan bahawa permintaan keluaran tersebut adalah cukup besar untuk menampung usaha dan kos perniagaan yang terlibat dengan keluaran tersebut.


objektif tinjauan pasaran

a) untuk menekankan kepentingan maklumat dalam membuat perancangan pemasaran

b) untuk memberi pengetahuan tentang jenis-jenis maklumat dan kaedah memperolehi maklumat tersebut

c) untuk memberi pengetahuan tentang proses di dalam menjalankan tinjauan pemasaran


peranan dan kepentingan maklumat;

1. untuk perancangan
a) mengenalpasti pelanggan
b) merancang produk dan/atau perkhidmatan
c) merancang harga produk dan/atau perkhidmatan
d) merancang pemilihan lokasi premis perniagaan
e) merancang program promosi atau pengiklanan

2. untuk perbandingan
a) membuat perbandingan produk dan/atau perkhidmatan
b) membuat perbandingan harga
c) membuat perbandingan keberkesanan program promosi dan pengiklanan
d) membuat perbandingan lokasi dan pelanggan sasaran

3. untuk kawalan
a) melihat prestasi perniagaan secara umum
b) melihat prestasi sesuatu produk atau perkhidmatan yang ditawarkan
c) mengawal harga produk yang ditawarkan
d) mengawal kos program promosi dan pengiklanan dan keberkesanan
e) menilai lokasi yang sedia ada dan yang berpotensi untuk dibangunkan


jenis-jenis maklumat

dua jenis maklumat yang utama:

1. maklumat sekunder:
a) suratkhabar
b) majalah
c) internet
d) buku & jurnal
e) maklumat kerajaan
f) persatuan & agensi

2. maklumat prima
a) diperolehi melalui temuduga
b) diperolehi melalui soal selidik
c) diperolehi daripada pemerhatian


kepuasan pengguna

kepuasan yang dihasilkan untuk dicapai oleh pengguna; kepuasan dibahagi kepada kepuasan dari segi nilai pembelian bagi sesuatu produk/perkhidmatan, dan kepuasan dari segi penggunaan produk/perkhidmatan tersebut.

kepuasan pengguna melahirkan:
a) pembelian ulangan
b) pembelian jangka panjang
c) kesetiaan jenama


keuntungan

terhasil daripada pembelian ulangan akibat daripada kepuasan pengguna. diperolehi oleh kedua-dua belah pihak iaitu pengeluar dan pembeli (win-win situation). mengekalkan keuntungan; inovasi produk dan periklanan

(sumber: modul pemasaran berkesan - teknik kaedah dan perkhidmatan pelanggan, sijil keusahawanan prosper siswazah, punb)